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HENRY'S LAW : William Henry gave this rule in 1803. Henry's law is applicable for the solution which are made by dissolving the gaseous solute in the liquid.  (जब हमारे पास गैस विलेय एवं विलायक कोई द्रव होता है तो उसके लिए हेनरी द्वारा यह नियम दिया गया।)  •  CO2 dissolved in solvent.  •  और अगर हमें किसी गैस को solvent में dissolve करना है तो उसके लिए गैस को pressure दिया जाता है।  • Solvent में उतनी ही गैस dissolve होगी जितना की गैस के ऊपर pressure apply किया गया हो।  •  x = mole fraction  •  m = Amount of Gas •  P = Pressure Definition of Henry's Law :   "Amount of the gas is dissolved in the solvent is directly proportional to the pressure applied over the solution." Mathematical representation is,        [m is proportional to p]       [  m = k.P.   ] Amount of the gas dissolved in ghe solvent is represent by mole fraction.      ...

Molarity : It is a solution which is the number of moles of the solute present in per liter of solution.  (प्रति लीटर विलयन में घुलित विलेय पदार्थ के मोलों की संख्या को विलयन की मोलरता कहते हैं)।  यह किसी निश्चित ताप पर ही हो सकता है।  •  It is denoted by 'M'. Formula :   •    M = (number of moles of solute/volume of solution in liter)                          Or                     M = n/v Unit : mol/liter or mol/L       Formality : It is used to solve the concentration of ionic compounds solutions. Denoted by 'F'. We could use  gram formula mass for ionic compounds. Because they have no discrete molecules e.g. molecular mass word is not valid for that kind of compounds.  "किसी निश्चित ताप पर प्रति लीटर विलयन में घुलित आयनिक पदार्थ के ग्राम सूत्र द्रव्यमान की संख्या विलयन की उस ताप पर फॉर्मलता कहलाती है।" (Gram ...

Composition of Solution/Concentration Units(विलयन का संघटन या सांद्रण इकाइयाँ) : The solvent that makes up most of solutions whereas a solute is the substance that is dissolved inside the solvent.  (विलायक की एक निश्चित मात्रा मे घुलित विलेय पदार्थ की मात्रा को विलयन का संघटन या विलयन का सांद्रण कहा जाता है।)These we can describes in many units that is following : 1.  Mass Percentage : A solute units persent in 100g of Solution is known as mass percentage or weight percentage. We denoted it is in mathematical way like   w/w.  ( 100g विलयन में उपस्थित ग्रामों में विलेय की मात्रा को द्रव्यमान प्रतिशत कहा जाता है। )  Formula :   •  mass percentage of solute = (mass of solute/mass of solution)×100  2.  Volume Percentage : 100 unit volume of solution is mixed with solute unit volume. How many amount are mixed with 100 unit volume of solution this is called volume percentage. It is denoted by v/v. •  volume is always counted i...

Practice Questions :  There is certain important questions you may write as you understand : Question 1. What is true solutions? Give their characteristics and examples as well.  Question 2.  What do you understand about polarity. Give their suitable examples.  Question 3.  What is the difference between polar & non-polar solvents. Give their examples.  Question 4.  What do understand about alloy. Give some examples.  Question 5.  How to separate out Butter from milk. What is name of this process.                           Thank You  ! 

Solutions - A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is known as Solution.  Two parts of Solution that make Solutions : 1. Solute : It is present in lesser proportion and present in dissolved state. And also it loses their physical state mostly.  2.  Solvent : It present in greater proportion in Solutions and it retain their physical state.  Properties of Solutions :  •  It is homogeneous mixtures.  •  It is transparent mixture.  •  It's particles are too tiny.  •  It's size/diameter less than 1 nm.  •  Particles don't scatter a beam of light passing through it and hence path of the light is not visible.  •  It is stable. •  The components of mixture/Solution cannot separated using filtration.  Types of Mixtures :  1. Homogeneous mixtures : A mixture that has it's components uniformly distributed is known s a Homogeneous mixture.   Example : Water and s...

A Brief Introduction of Solution Topics which we will discuss in this chapter : •  What is Solution. ?  •  Types of Solution.  •  Composition of a Solutions.  •  Solutions of gases in liquids.  •  Henry's Law.  •  Limitations of Henry's Law.  •  Solutions of Solids in Liquids.  •  Mechanism of Dissolution.  •  Solubility.  •  Raoult's Law.  •  Ideal Solutions.  •  Non-Ideal Solutions.  •  Colligative Properties.  •  Boiling Point.  •  melting Point.  •  Freezing Point.  •  Osmosis. •  Osmotic Pressure.  •  Van't Hoff's Equation.  •  Van't Hoff's Factor.  •  Isotonic Solution.  •  Hypertonic Solution.  •  Hypotonic Solution.                                         ...

[ A]  Point Defects :  The defects caused by a departure from the periodic arrangement of particles in the vicinity of an atom/group of atoms.  These are Three types of point defects : {1}  Stoichiometric defects : In this defects when crystal stoichiometry (e.g. in presence of +ve and -ve ratio in crystal)  doesn't changed in the presence of crystal defects.  These are two important types of stoichiometric defects as follows :  (i)  Schottky Defects : This type of defect is created when one positive and one negative ion are missing equally from their positions. It is very common in ionic compounds which have high coordination number.  Note :   •   Equal number of cations & anions should be missing for schottky Defects.  •  It results decrease in density of crystal.  Example :  NaCl, KCl, CsCl, KBr, AgBr.   (ii)  Frenkel Defects :  It is created when an ...

DEFECTS IN SOLIDS "Any departure from the perfectly ordered arrangement in a crystal is termed as defects in that crystal."  These are two types of defects in solids or crystals : (i)  Electronic defects : The electrons and holes in solids gives rise to electronic defects.  "The error in charge distribution in solids is called electronic defects." •  These defects are produced when the composition of an ionic crystal doesn't correspond to the exact stoichiometric formula. (ii)  Atomic defects : The   defects caused by the non-arrangement of ions/atom. These are two types of atomic defects as follows : [A]  Point Defects : The defects caused by a departure from the periodic arrangement of particles in the vicinity of an atoms.  These are three types of Point Defects : 1.  Stoichiometric Defects.  2.  Non-Stoichiometric Defects.  3.  Impurity Defects.  [B]  Non-Stoichiometric Defects : 1.  Metal excess defect...

PACKING IN CRYSTAL SYSTEM  •  There are two types of Crystal packing as following : •  Hexagonal Closest Packing :  Coordination number = 6  •  Cubic Closest Packing/Square Closest Packing :  Coordination number = 4  Term related to packing systems : 1. Coordination Number : The number of nearest neighbours of a sphere or the number of spheres touching any sphere.  2. Packing efficiency or Packing fraction : The percentage of total space filled by the particles is called packing efficiency.      Formula of packing efficiency : Packing efficiency = [volume of atoms in a unit cell / total volume of a unit cell]×100 •  Density of Unit cells :     [ d = Z × M/NA × a^3 ] Where,               d = density.              Z  = Effective no.of atoms in unit.      ...

BEAGG'S EQUATION   W. L. Bragg & W. H. Bragg the two  scientists has given this equation.  Derivation of Bragg Equation : •  इस diagram के अनुसार क्रिस्टल के एक पुंज को आपतित कोण ( glancing angle) थीटा (Q) पर गिराया गया।  •  क्षैतिज रेखाएँ KL & MN क्रिस्टल मे दो उत्रोतर Atomic तलों को व्यक्त करती है।  •  KL & MN दोनों एक दूसरे से d distance पर हैं।  •  AB & CD incident and reflected X-rays पर खींचे perpendicular(लंबवत) plane(तल) हैं।  •  Incident and Reflected bunch(पुंज) पर EG & EH perpendicular plane खींचे जाने पर दोनो पुंजों (bunches) की path distance   = GF + FH •  इसकी value wave length का पूर्ण गुणांक (n) होना चाहिए,           n = order (1,2,3....)  Laimda = wave length of rays d = distance between layers of atoms in a crystal.                             ...

CUBIC UNIT CELL •  Relation between edge length and radius : •  Edge length of unit cell is measured from one corner lattice point to adjacent corner.  •  all the constituent particles are considered as solid sphere with radius ' r'. SIMPLE CUBIC UNIT CELL •  Relation between edge length and radius : •  In this unit cell the adjacent corner atoms touch each other.  •  [ a = 2x ] BODY-CENTRED CUBIC UNIT CELL •  Relation between edge length and radius: •  In this unit cell the adjacent corner atoms do not touch each others.  •  all corner touch the atom at body centred.  •  [ Fd = √2 a ] FACE-CENTRED CUBIC UNIT CELL •  In this unit cell the adjacent corner atoms do not touch each other.  •  all atoms touch the atom at face centred.                           THANK YOU  !          ...

VARIATIONS WITHIN A CRYSTAL SYSTEM :  A. Primitive Unit Cells/Simple Unit Cells(PC/SC) : When constituent particles are present only on the corner positions of a Unit cell, it is called a simple.  Example : Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic, Monoclinic, Triclinic, Hexagonal, Rhombohedral or Trigonal.  Calculation :                        •  Effective number of atoms per unit cell  • Contribution of an atom in the unit cell = (1/8)th of atom.  So,  Formula :      { Effective no. of atoms = Corners of cubic×contribution of an atoms in one unit cell}               8×1/8 = 1 answer.  B. Body-Centred Cubic(BCC) : Such a unit Cells contains one constituent particles (atom, molecule, ion) at its body centre besides the ones that are it's corners.  Example : Cubic, Tetragonal, Orthorhombic.  Calculation ...

CRYSTAL SYSTEMS There is seven types of Crystal system: 1. Cubic  2. Tetragonal 3. Orthorhombic 4. Monoclinic 5. Triclinic 6. Hexagonal 7. Rhombohedral or Trigonal "Crystal systems are defined based on 'Parameters' of a Unit cell :  A unit cell is characterized by six parameters.  a, b, c = edge length alpha, beta, gama = angles • Alpha(L) : angles lies between edges b & c.  • Beta(B) : angles lies between edges a & b.  • Gama(Y) : angles lies between edges a & b.  Parameters are in various Crystal system : The following chart are defined that parameters of various Crystal system.  Variations within a Crystal System: Following types of variations we can see in the Crystal system.  A. Primitive Unit Cells/Simple Unit Cell(PC or SC)  B. Body-Centred Unit Cell(BCC)    C. Face-Centred Unit Cell(FCC)  D. End-Centre...

CRYSTALS/CRYSTALLINE A constituents are arranged A highly ordered microscopic structure,forming a crystal lattice that extend in all directions.                 Fig. 1 : Crystal CLASSIFICATION OF CRYSTALS : These are four types of crystals are following :  1. Ionic Crystals : It is binding by ionic        bonds.               Fig. 2 : (NaCl)  Properties/characteristics of Ionic Crystals :  •  It is hard and brittle.  • High melting point.  • High heat of fusion.  • Poor thermal and electric                      conductors.  Example : NaCl, PbS. etc.  2. Molecular Crystals :   It is binding            by  Vander waal's forces ( London dispersion, dipole-dipole force, hydrogen bonds).    ...

ANISOTRPOPY It is the property of substance to show variations in physical properties along different moleculer axis. It is opposite of isotropic materials " अनिसोट्रॉपी एक सामग्री की संपत्ति है जो इसे अलग-अलग दिशाओं में अलग-अलग गुणों को बदलने या ग्रहण करने की अनुमति देती है जैसा कि आइसोट्रॉपी के विपरीत है। " Example : Which all material/substance who can adjust their size and shape as per requirement.  ALLOTROPES When a substance/matter exists in two or more forms then they call allotropes.  Example : Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon.  POLYMORPHISM When a single substance crystallized in two or more forms under different conditions of solidification is called polymorphism and the crystal showing polymorphism are called polymorphous .   Example : Silica forms many polymorphous such as alpha, bita- quartz, tridimite, crystobatic, coesite.  ISOMORPHISM Iso = Same or identical Morph = Shape or Forms When...

General Introduction of Solid State "Solid is the one of four fundamental states of matter. The particles(atom, molecules, or ions)in solid state are closely packed together and contain the least amount of kinetic energy." Characteristics of Solid state • Particles distance is minimum.  • Size,volume, mass, and shape are absolute.  • Density is greater than gas and liquid states • Moving character are less than liquids and gases.  • Solids are heavier than liquids and gases. ( exception ice is lighter than water)  • Particles are bound strongly by intramolecular forces.  Classification of solid state  On the basis of the nature of order present in the arrangement of their constituent particles.  A- Crystalline Solids It is a solid whose particles posses a regular order a long range arrangement.        Fig. 1:  arrangement of crystalline                     ...