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Colligative Properties : Those properties of solution which depends upon number of the solute particles in solution is known as colligative properties of solution.  Among those colligative Properties is following :  1.  Vapour pressure lowering.   2.   Boiling point elevation.  3.   Melting point depresion.  4.  Osmotic pressure.                            Thank you  ! 

RAOULT'S LAW :                                Raoult's law is name after 'Francois Marie Raoult' who while conducting an experiment found out that when substances were mixed in a solution the vapour pressure of the solution decreased simultaneously. The law is established in the year of 1887. "Raoult's law the states that a solvents partial vapour pressure in a solution is equal or identical to the vapour pressure of the pure solvent multiply by mole fraction in the solution." Equation of Raoult's Law :  [  P solution = X solvent × P° solvent  ] Where,  •  P solution = vapour pressure of solution.  •  X solvent = mole fraction of solvent.  •  P° solvent = vapour pressure of the pure solvent.  Calculation of Raoult's Law for Volatile Liquids :               For a solution of valatile liquids, the partial vapour...

[A]    Factors affecting Solubility : •   Nature of solute and solvent.  •  Polarity of the solvent.  •  Temperature of solvents. •  Pressure.  •  Size of particles.  [B]    Determination of Solubility : •  Making  of saturated solution.   •  Evapourization.  •  Calculation.  [C]    Solubility Curves : किसी लवण(salt) की विलेयता (solubility) पर ताप (temperature) के प्रभाव (effect) को प्रायः एक वक्र (curve) द्वारा भी व्यक्त किया जा सकता है जिसे solubility Curves (विलेयता वक्र) कहा जाता है।  Generally these are two types of solubility Curves : (a)  Continuous Solubility Curves : This type of Curves have not sharp break as called continuous solubility curves.  Example :  NaCl, KCl, KClO3, NaNO3, etc.  (b)  Discontinuous Solubility Curves : It have the quality of sudden directional ch...

SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS :  •  Saturated Solutions  :   A solution that contains maximum amount of a solute in a given solvent at room temperature. No more solute can dissolve in it. It is a dynamic equilibrium between the undissolved and dissolved solute this is called saturated solution.   ( वह विलयन जिसमें किसी निश्चित ताप पर और अधिक विलेय को घोलना असंभव हो।)  •  Dissolution :   जब एक solid को liquid में dissolve किया जाता है तो molecular vebrations solute molecules को solution मे enter करने के लिए बाध्य करते हैं।  •  Precipitation : जैसे जैसे liquid state में solute molecules के concentration में बढ़ोतरी होती जाती है solute molecules solid state मे वापस आना शुरू कर देते हैं।  •  Unsaturated Solutions :    A solution that is capable of dissolving more solute at a given temperature that it already contains it is known as unsaturated solutions.  ...

HENRY'S LAW : William Henry gave this rule in 1803. Henry's law is applicable for the solution which are made by dissolving the gaseous solute in the liquid.  (जब हमारे पास गैस विलेय एवं विलायक कोई द्रव होता है तो उसके लिए हेनरी द्वारा यह नियम दिया गया।)  •  CO2 dissolved in solvent.  •  और अगर हमें किसी गैस को solvent में dissolve करना है तो उसके लिए गैस को pressure दिया जाता है।  • Solvent में उतनी ही गैस dissolve होगी जितना की गैस के ऊपर pressure apply किया गया हो।  •  x = mole fraction  •  m = Amount of Gas •  P = Pressure Definition of Henry's Law :   "Amount of the gas is dissolved in the solvent is directly proportional to the pressure applied over the solution." Mathematical representation is,        [m is proportional to p]       [  m = k.P.   ] Amount of the gas dissolved in ghe solvent is represent by mole fraction.      ...

Molarity : It is a solution which is the number of moles of the solute present in per liter of solution.  (प्रति लीटर विलयन में घुलित विलेय पदार्थ के मोलों की संख्या को विलयन की मोलरता कहते हैं)।  यह किसी निश्चित ताप पर ही हो सकता है।  •  It is denoted by 'M'. Formula :   •    M = (number of moles of solute/volume of solution in liter)                          Or                     M = n/v Unit : mol/liter or mol/L       Formality : It is used to solve the concentration of ionic compounds solutions. Denoted by 'F'. We could use  gram formula mass for ionic compounds. Because they have no discrete molecules e.g. molecular mass word is not valid for that kind of compounds.  "किसी निश्चित ताप पर प्रति लीटर विलयन में घुलित आयनिक पदार्थ के ग्राम सूत्र द्रव्यमान की संख्या विलयन की उस ताप पर फॉर्मलता कहलाती है।" (Gram ...

Composition of Solution/Concentration Units(विलयन का संघटन या सांद्रण इकाइयाँ) : The solvent that makes up most of solutions whereas a solute is the substance that is dissolved inside the solvent.  (विलायक की एक निश्चित मात्रा मे घुलित विलेय पदार्थ की मात्रा को विलयन का संघटन या विलयन का सांद्रण कहा जाता है।)These we can describes in many units that is following : 1.  Mass Percentage : A solute units persent in 100g of Solution is known as mass percentage or weight percentage. We denoted it is in mathematical way like   w/w.  ( 100g विलयन में उपस्थित ग्रामों में विलेय की मात्रा को द्रव्यमान प्रतिशत कहा जाता है। )  Formula :   •  mass percentage of solute = (mass of solute/mass of solution)×100  2.  Volume Percentage : 100 unit volume of solution is mixed with solute unit volume. How many amount are mixed with 100 unit volume of solution this is called volume percentage. It is denoted by v/v. •  volume is always counted i...

Practice Questions :  There is certain important questions you may write as you understand : Question 1. What is true solutions? Give their characteristics and examples as well.  Question 2.  What do you understand about polarity. Give their suitable examples.  Question 3.  What is the difference between polar & non-polar solvents. Give their examples.  Question 4.  What do understand about alloy. Give some examples.  Question 5.  How to separate out Butter from milk. What is name of this process.                           Thank You  ! 

Solutions - A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances is known as Solution.  Two parts of Solution that make Solutions : 1. Solute : It is present in lesser proportion and present in dissolved state. And also it loses their physical state mostly.  2.  Solvent : It present in greater proportion in Solutions and it retain their physical state.  Properties of Solutions :  •  It is homogeneous mixtures.  •  It is transparent mixture.  •  It's particles are too tiny.  •  It's size/diameter less than 1 nm.  •  Particles don't scatter a beam of light passing through it and hence path of the light is not visible.  •  It is stable. •  The components of mixture/Solution cannot separated using filtration.  Types of Mixtures :  1. Homogeneous mixtures : A mixture that has it's components uniformly distributed is known s a Homogeneous mixture.   Example : Water and s...

[ A]  Point Defects :  The defects caused by a departure from the periodic arrangement of particles in the vicinity of an atom/group of atoms.  These are Three types of point defects : {1}  Stoichiometric defects : In this defects when crystal stoichiometry (e.g. in presence of +ve and -ve ratio in crystal)  doesn't changed in the presence of crystal defects.  These are two important types of stoichiometric defects as follows :  (i)  Schottky Defects : This type of defect is created when one positive and one negative ion are missing equally from their positions. It is very common in ionic compounds which have high coordination number.  Note :   •   Equal number of cations & anions should be missing for schottky Defects.  •  It results decrease in density of crystal.  Example :  NaCl, KCl, CsCl, KBr, AgBr.   (ii)  Frenkel Defects :  It is created when an ...