Knowledge Booster

  Titration - is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis to determine the concentration of an identified analyte. Purpose - Titration is the detection of the equivalence point,the point at which chemically equivalent amounts of the reactants have been mixed. The amount of reactants that have been mixed at the equivalence point depends on the stoichiometry of the reaction. Titration uses in Real Life -  Food Industry. Cosmetic Industry. Wine Industry. Pharmaceutical Industry Biodiesel Manufacturing. Waste water Management. Medical Diagnosis. Acid Rain Analysis.

  SALT ANALYSIS - What is Salt Analysis - Salt analysis is also known as systematic qualitative analysis or qualitative inorganic analysis involves the identification of the cation and anion of an inorganic salts. Most common salts NH4Br it contains Br- ion.                                   CaCl2 it contains Ca2+ ion.

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• General Characteristics of ionic Compounds : (i) Physical State: They generally exist as crystalline solids, known as crystal lattice. Ionic compounds do not exist as single molecules like other gaseous molecules e.g., H 2  , N 2  , 0 2  , Cl 2  etc. (ii) Melting and boiling points: Since ionic compounds contain high interionic force between them, they generally have high melting and boiling points. (iii) Solubility: They are soluble in polar solvents such as water but do not dissolve in organic solvents like benzene, CCl4etc. (iv) Electrical conductivity: In solid state they are poor conductors of electricity but in molten state or when dissolved in water, they conduct electricity. (v) Ionic reactions: Ionic compounds produce ions in the solution which gives very fast reaction with oppositely charged ions. For example, •  Covalent Bond—Lewis-Langmuir Concept : When the bond is formed between two or more atoms by mutual contribution and shar...

Modes of Chemical Combination — By the transfer of electrons: The chemical bond which formed by the complete transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to another is termed as electrovalent bond or ionic bond. — By sharing of electrons: The bond which is formed by the equal sharing of electrons between one or two atoms is called covalent bond. In these bonds electrons are contributed by both. Co-ordinate bond: When the electrons are contributed by one atom and shared by both, the bond is formed and it is known as dative bond or co-ordinate bond. Ionic or Electrovalent Bond Ionic or Electrovalent bond is formed by the complete transfer of electrons from one atom to another. Generally, it is formed between metals and non-metals. We can say that it is the electrostatic force of attraction which holds the oppositely charged ions together. The compounds which is formed by ionic or electrovalent bond is known as electrovalent compounds. For Example, , (i) NaCl is an electrovalent compou...

Chemical Bond The force that holds different atoms in a molecule is called chemical bond. Octet Rule Atoms of different elements take part in chemical combination in order to complete their octet or to attain the noble gas configuration. Valence Electrons It is the outermost shell electron which takes part in chemical combination. Facts Stated by Kossel in Relation to Chemical Bonding •  In the periodic table, the highly electronegative halogens and the highly electro-positive alkali metals are separated by noble gases. • Formation of an anion and cation by the halogens and alkali metals are formed by gain of electron and loss of electron respectively. •  Both the negative and positive ions acquire the noble gas configuration.  The negative and positive ions are stabilized by electrostatic attraction Example,

        QUESTIONS   Question 1. Give the uses of freon 12, DDT, carbon tetrachloride and iodoform. Question 2. p-Dichlorobenzene has higher m.p. and lower solubility than those of o- and m-isomers. Discuss.

QUESTIONS Question 1:  Write the isomers of the compound having formula C4H9Br. Question 2:  Write the equations for the preparation of 1−iodobutane from (i) 1-butanol (ii) 1-chlorobutane (iii) but-1-ene Question 2:  How will you bring about the followin g conversions? (i) Ethanol to but-1-yne (ii) Ethane to bromoethene (iii) Propene to 1-nitropropane (iv) Toluene to benzyl alcohol (v) Propene to propyne (vi) Ethanol to ethyl fluoride (vii) Bromomethane to propanone (viii) But-1-ene to but-2-ene  (ix) 1-Chlorobutane to n-octane  (x) Benzene to biphenyl. Question 3:  Explain why?  (i) the dipole moment of chlorobenzene is lower than that of cyclohexyl chloride? (ii) alkyl halides, though polar, are immiscible with water? (iii) Grignard reagents should be prepared under anhydrous conditions?

PRACTICE QUESTIONS Question  1. Write the structures of the following organic halogen compounds. (i) 2 -Chloro-3 -methylpentane (ii) p -Bromochlorobenzene (iii) 1 -Chloro-4-ethylcyclohexane (iv) 2 – (2 -Chlorophenyl) -1 -iodooctane (v) Perfluorobenzene (vi) 4 – tert – Butyl -3 -iodoheptane (vii) 1 – Bromo – 4 – sec – butyl – 2 – methylbenzene (viii) 1 ,4 – Dibromobut – 2 – ene Question  2. Which one of the following has the highest dipole moment? (i) CH2Cl2 (ii) CHCl3 (iii) CCl4 Question 3. A hydrocarbon C5H10 does not react with chlorine in dark but gives a single monochloro compound C5H9Cl in bright sunlight. Identify the hydrocarbon.

            PRACTICE QUESTIONS Question 10.1: Name the following halides according to IUPAC system and classify them as alkyl, allyl, benzyl ( primary, secondary, tertiary ), vinyl or aryl halides : (i) (CH 3 ) 2 CHCH(Cl)CH 3 (ii) CH 3 CH 2 CH(CH 3 )CH(C 2 H 5 )Cl (iii) CH 3 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 2 CH 2 I (iv) (CH 3 ) 3 CCH 2 CH(Br)C 6 H 5 (v) CH 3 CH(CH 3 )CH(Br)CH 3 (vi) CH 3 C(C 2 H 5 ) 2 CH 2 Br (vii) CH 3 C(Cl)(C 2 H 5 )CH 2 CH 3 (viii) CH 3 CH=C(Cl)CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 (ix) CH 3 CH=CHC(Br)(CH 3 ) 2 (x) p-ClC 6 H 4 CH 2 CH(CH 3 ) 2 (xi) m-ClCH 2 C 6 H 4 CH 2 C(CH 3 ) 3 (xii) o-Br-C 6 H 4 CH(CH 3 )CH 2 CH Question 10.2:Give the IUPAC names of the following compounds: (i) CH3 CH(Cl) CH(Br) CH3 (ii) CH F2 CBr ClF (iii) Cl CH2 C ≡ C CH2 Br (iv) ( CCl 3) 3 CCl (v) CH3 C (p – Cl C6 H4 )2 CH(Br) CH3 (vi) (CH3 )3 C CH = C Cl C6 H4 I 

NATURE OF C-X BOND :  •  Halogens is more electronegative than carbons.  •  Carbon atom has partial positive charge •  The nature of C-X bond depends on both the nature of carbon in the aromatic ring and the halogen attached.  •  Florine has the highest electronegative element of halogens.  •  The halogens elements(17th group) are just one electron short of completing their nearest novel gas configurations.  •  Electronegativity increased across a period from left to right.      (F>Cl>Br>I)  •  The C-X bond in haloarenes is polarised as 'X' are more electronegative than carbon.  •  The only one sigma bond is formed between one carbon and one halogen.  •  The atomic size has increased Florine to down the period.  •  The C-X bond length in haloarenes increases from Florine(F) to Astetine(As) and bond dissociated strength decreases....

Question . Discuss the structure of Side chain halogen Compounds.  Question . How do you to identify aromatic compounds. Discuss. 

Question 1.  How to explain 1°, 2°, and 3° Alkile Halides. Give the examples.  Question 2.  Give the molecular structure of given below compounds: •  CH 3-CH=C=C=O •  CH2-Cl-CH2-CH=CH-OH

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE -  •   CH2=CH-CH3 •  CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=CH2-Br •    CH3-CH2-CH2-CH=CH-CH2-Cl •   CH2=CH-OH •   CH3-CH2-OH

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE -  •   CH3-CH2-CH-Br2 •   CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2Cl •   CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3 •   CH-F2-CH2-CH3 •   CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-Br2

Question 1. How to explain halogens in details.  Question 2. Give the physical & chemical properties of halogens.  Question 3. What is the characteristics of halogens. Give their uses.  Question 4. Give some Reactions with halogenic compounds to other metallic compounds.  Question 5. Why we called halogen of 17th group in the periodic table.                             **************

Exercising Questions :  Question 1.  Give the structural formula of following compounds : a) CCl4 b) CH2Cl2 c)   CH3CH2OH d) CHCl3 e) CH3Br f) CH3CH3CH2-I g) C6H4Br2 h) C6H50H Question 2.  Give the IUPAC name of following compounds: a) CH2-Cl-CH2-CH-Cl-OH b) CH3-CH2-CH-Br-CH3 c) C6H6

Exercise Questions for Haloalkanes Question  1. Give the structural formula of the following compounds.  a) Butane.  b) Butene.  c) Propylene.  d) Hexenon. e) 3-Pentanol. f) 2,4,5-Trimethyl Hexane.  Question 2.  Give the IUPAC name of the following compounds.  a) CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH b) CH2-OH-CH2-CH2-CH2-OH c) CH2-O-CH-OH-CH2-CH3 d) C6H5OH e) C6H5CH3.  Question 3. What do you understand by aliphatic compounds. Give examples.                    

Topics that which we learn in further discussion as following : •  Heloalkanes.  •  Haloarenes.  •  Alifatic Halogen Compounds.  •  Aromatic Halogen Compounds.  •  IUPAC Nomenclature.  •  Nomenclature of Haloalkanes.  •  Isomerism in Haloalkanes.  •  Methods of Preparation of Haloalkanes.  •  Physical Properties of Haloalkanes •  Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes.  •  Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions.  •  Elimination Reactions.  •  Satyzeff's Rule.  •  Stereochemical aspects of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions of Haloalkanes.  •  Chirality.  • Elementry of Symmetry.  •  Uses of Haloalkanes.                                   Thank you   !  

Practice Questions :   •   Important Questions for your examination point of view  Question 1.  भार प्रतिशत को परिभाषित कीजिए तथा इसके मात्रक बताईये?  Question 2.  किसी विलयन की  मोललता ताप पर निर्भर क्यों नहीं करती है?  Question 3.  मोलरता तथा नॉर्मलता ताप पर निर्भर क्यों करती है?  Question 4.  Urea का जलीय विलयन 100°C के ऊपर उबलता है लेकिन 0°C के नीचे जमता है व्याख्या करें।  Question 5.  अंडो को उबालने के लिए प्रयुक्त जल मे नमक मिलाया जाता है व्याख्या करें।  Question 6.  Henry's Law की व्याख्या करें एवं कुछ मुख्य अनुप्रयोग बतायें।  Question 7.    जल में गन्ने की शक्कर का भारनुसार 5℅ विलयन का हिमांक 271 K है। जल में 5℅ ग्लूकोज के हिमांक की गणना कीजिए, यदि pure water का freezing point 273.15 K  है।                           Thank you  ! 

•    Practice   Questions :  Question 1. What is Relative Lowering of vapour Pressure and how to determine the molecular mass of a solute from relative Lowering of vapour pressure.  Question 2.  298 K पर जल का vapour pressure 23.75 mm Hg है। इस ताप पर यूरिया के 5℅ जलीय विलयन का vapour pressure ज्ञान कीजिये।  Question 3.  किसी निश्चित ताप पर शुद्ध Benzene का vapour pressure 200 mm Hg है। उसी ताप पर 78 g Benzene में घुलित एक अवाष्पशील ठोस के 2 g युक्त एक विलयन का vapour pressure 195 mm Hg है। ठोस (solid) के molecular weight को calculate कीजिए।  Question 4. What is the Boiling Point of water, chloroform, ether, benzene and ethyl alcohol.  Question 5.  एक अवाष्पशील विलेय के 10g को 100g benzene में घोलने पर बेंजीन के boiling point (क्वथनांक) में 1°C की वृध्द्धि पायी जाती है। विलेय (solute) का molecular weight (अणु भार) क्या है। (For benzene Kb = 2.53K kg/mol.)                    ...

1.  Vapour  P ressure Lowering : when we adding a vapourised solute in the normal solvent there after changed in vapour pressure is called lowering of vapour pressure.  If any of pure solvent vapour pressure is p° and vapour pressure of solution is p,  Than,    lowering of vapour pressure = p°-p And relative lowering of vapour pressure = p°-p/p° [A]  Measurement   of   Relative   Lowering of   Vapour   Pressure : for the measurement the Ostward and Walker's dynamic method is most important method to measurement.  [B]    Determination of molecular mass of a solute from Relative   Lowering of Vapour Pressure : The formula of the calculating the molecular mass of solute as  Where, M' = molecular weight of solute.  w = molar mass of solute.  W = molar mass of solvent.  M = molecular weight of solvent.  •  Elevation of ...

Colligative Properties : Those properties of solution which depends upon number of the solute particles in solution is known as colligative properties of solution.  Among those colligative Properties is following :  1.  Vapour pressure lowering.   2.   Boiling point elevation.  3.   Melting point depresion.  4.  Osmotic pressure.                            Thank you  ! 

RAOULT'S LAW :                                Raoult's law is name after 'Francois Marie Raoult' who while conducting an experiment found out that when substances were mixed in a solution the vapour pressure of the solution decreased simultaneously. The law is established in the year of 1887. "Raoult's law the states that a solvents partial vapour pressure in a solution is equal or identical to the vapour pressure of the pure solvent multiply by mole fraction in the solution." Equation of Raoult's Law :  [  P solution = X solvent × P° solvent  ] Where,  •  P solution = vapour pressure of solution.  •  X solvent = mole fraction of solvent.  •  P° solvent = vapour pressure of the pure solvent.  Calculation of Raoult's Law for Volatile Liquids :               For a solution of valatile liquids, the partial vapour...

[A]    Factors affecting Solubility : •   Nature of solute and solvent.  •  Polarity of the solvent.  •  Temperature of solvents. •  Pressure.  •  Size of particles.  [B]    Determination of Solubility : •  Making  of saturated solution.   •  Evapourization.  •  Calculation.  [C]    Solubility Curves : किसी लवण(salt) की विलेयता (solubility) पर ताप (temperature) के प्रभाव (effect) को प्रायः एक वक्र (curve) द्वारा भी व्यक्त किया जा सकता है जिसे solubility Curves (विलेयता वक्र) कहा जाता है।  Generally these are two types of solubility Curves : (a)  Continuous Solubility Curves : This type of Curves have not sharp break as called continuous solubility curves.  Example :  NaCl, KCl, KClO3, NaNO3, etc.  (b)  Discontinuous Solubility Curves : It have the quality of sudden directional ch...

SOLUTIONS OF SOLIDS IN LIQUIDS :  •  Saturated Solutions  :   A solution that contains maximum amount of a solute in a given solvent at room temperature. No more solute can dissolve in it. It is a dynamic equilibrium between the undissolved and dissolved solute this is called saturated solution.   ( वह विलयन जिसमें किसी निश्चित ताप पर और अधिक विलेय को घोलना असंभव हो।)  •  Dissolution :   जब एक solid को liquid में dissolve किया जाता है तो molecular vebrations solute molecules को solution मे enter करने के लिए बाध्य करते हैं।  •  Precipitation : जैसे जैसे liquid state में solute molecules के concentration में बढ़ोतरी होती जाती है solute molecules solid state मे वापस आना शुरू कर देते हैं।  •  Unsaturated Solutions :    A solution that is capable of dissolving more solute at a given temperature that it already contains it is known as unsaturated solutions.  ...